GitHub

Creating a Pull Request

Tony is looking for code to run on his Arduino programmable microcontroller and has found a great program file on GitHub at https://github.com/schacon/blink.

The only problem is that the blinking rate is too fast. We think it’s much nicer to wait 3 seconds instead of 1 in between each state change. So let’s improve the program and submit it back to the project as a proposed change.

First, we click the 'Fork' button as mentioned earlier to get our own copy of the project. Our user name here is `tonychacon'' so our copy of this project is at `https://github.com/tonychacon/blink and that’s where we can edit it. We will clone it locally, create a topic branch, make the code change and finally push that change back up to GitHub.

$ git clone https://github.com/tonychacon/blink 
Cloning into 'blink'...

$ cd blink
$ git checkout -b slow-blink 
Switched to a new branch 'slow-blink'

$ sed -i '' 's/1000/3000/' blink.ino (macOS) 
# If you're on a Linux system, do this instead:
# $ sed -i 's/1000/3000/' blink.ino 

$ git diff --word-diff 
diff --git a/blink.ino b/blink.ino
index 15b9911..a6cc5a5 100644
--- a/blink.ino
+++ b/blink.ino
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ void setup() {
// the loop routine runs over and over again forever:
void loop() {
  digitalWrite(led, HIGH);   // turn the LED on (HIGH is the voltage level)
  [-delay(1000);-]{+delay(3000);+}               // wait for a second
  digitalWrite(led, LOW);    // turn the LED off by making the voltage LOW
  [-delay(1000);-]{+delay(3000);+}               // wait for a second
}

$ git commit -a -m 'three seconds is better' 
[slow-blink 5ca509d] three seconds is better
 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-)

$ git push origin slow-blink 
Username for 'https://github.com': tonychacon
Password for 'https://tonychacon@github.com':
Counting objects: 5, done.
Delta compression using up to 8 threads.
Compressing objects: 100% (3/3), done.
Writing objects: 100% (3/3), 340 bytes | 0 bytes/s, done.
Total 3 (delta 1), reused 0 (delta 0)
To https://github.com/tonychacon/blink
 * [new branch]      slow-blink -> slow-blink

• 1 Clone our fork of the project locally
• 2 Create a descriptive topic branch
• 4 Make our change to the code
• 5 Check that the change is good
• 6 Commit our change to the topic branch
• 7 Push our new topic branch back up to our GitHub fork

Now if we go back to our fork on GitHub, we can see that GitHub noticed that we pushed a new topic branch up and presents us with a big green button to check out our changes and open a Pull Request to the original project.

You can alternatively go to the `Branches'' page at `https://github.com/<user>/<project>/branches to locate your branch and open a new Pull Request from there.

​ If we click that green button, we’ll see a screen that asks us to give our Pull Request a title and description. It is almost always worthwhile to put some effort into this, since a good description helps the owner of the original project determine what you were trying to do, whether your proposed changes are correct, and whether accepting the changes would improve the original project.

We also see a list of the commits in our topic branch that are `ahead'' of the `master branch (in this case, just the one) and a unified diff of all the changes that will be made should this branch get merged by the project owner.

When you hit the 'Create pull request' button on this screen, the owner of the project you forked will get a notification that someone is suggesting a change and will link to a page that has all of this information on it.

Iterating on a Pull Request

At this point, the project owner can look at the suggested change and merge it, reject it or comment on it. Let’s say that he likes the idea, but would prefer a slightly longer time for the light to be off than on.

Where this conversation may take place over email in the workflows presented in Distributed Git, on GitHub this happens online. The project owner can review the unified diff and leave a comment by clicking on any of the lines.

Once the maintainer makes this comment, the person who opened the Pull Request (and indeed, anyone else watching the repository) will get a notification. We’ll go over customizing this later, but if he had email notifications turned on, Tony would get an email like this:

Anyone can also leave general comments on the Pull Request. In Pull Request discussion page we can see an example of the project owner both commenting on a line of code and then leaving a general comment in the discussion section. You can see that the code comments are brought into the conversation as well.

Now the contributor can see what they need to do in order to get their change accepted. Luckily this is very straightforward. Where over email you may have to re-roll your series and resubmit it to the mailing list, with GitHub you simply commit to the topic branch again and push, which will automatically update the Pull Request. In Pull Request final you can also see that the old code comment has been collapsed in the updated Pull Request, since it was made on a line that has since been changed.

Adding commits to an existing Pull Request doesn’t trigger a notification, so once Tony has pushed his corrections he decides to leave a comment to inform the project owner that he made the requested change.

An interesting thing to notice is that if you click on the Files Changed'' tab on this Pull Request, you’ll get the unified'' diff — that is, the total aggregate difference that would be introduced to your main branch if this topic branch was merged in. In git diff terms, it basically automatically shows you git diff master…​<branch> for the branch this Pull Request is based on. See Determining What Is Introduced for more about this type of diff.

The other thing you’ll notice is that GitHub checks to see if the Pull Request merges cleanly and provides a button to do the merge for you on the server. This button only shows up if you have write access to the repository and a trivial merge is possible. If you click it GitHub will perform a ``non-fast-forward'' merge, meaning that even if the merge could be a fast-forward, it will still create a merge commit.

If you would prefer, you can simply pull the branch down and merge it locally. If you merge this branch into the master branch and push it to GitHub, the Pull Request will automatically be closed.

This is the basic workflow that most GitHub projects use. Topic branches are created, Pull Requests are opened on them, a discussion ensues, possibly more work is done on the branch and eventually the request is either closed or merged.

Pull Requests as Patches

It’s important to understand that many projects don’t really think of Pull Requests as queues of perfect patches that should apply cleanly in order, as most mailing list-based projects think of patch series contributions. Most GitHub projects think about Pull Request branches as iterative conversations around a proposed change, culminating in a unified diff that is applied by merging.

This is an important distinction, because generally the change is suggested before the code is thought to be perfect, which is far more rare with mailing list based patch series contributions. This enables an earlier conversation with the maintainers so that arriving at the proper solution is more of a community effort. When code is proposed with a Pull Request and the maintainers or community suggest a change, the patch series is generally not re-rolled, but instead the difference is pushed as a new commit to the branch, moving the conversation forward with the context of the previous work intact.

For instance, if you go back and look again at Pull Request final, you’ll notice that the contributor did not rebase his commit and send another Pull Request. Instead they added new commits and pushed them to the existing branch. This way if you go back and look at this Pull Request in the future, you can easily find all of the context of why decisions were made. Pushing the ``Merge'' button on the site purposefully creates a merge commit that references the Pull Request so that it’s easy to go back and research the original conversation if necessary.

Keeping up with Upstream

If your Pull Request becomes out of date or otherwise doesn’t merge cleanly, you will want to fix it so the maintainer can easily merge it. GitHub will test this for you and let you know at the bottom of every Pull Request if the merge is trivial or not.

If you see something like Pull Request does not merge cleanly, you’ll want to fix your branch so that it turns green and the maintainer doesn’t have to do extra work.

You have two main options in order to do this. You can either rebase your branch on top of whatever the target branch is (normally the master branch of the repository you forked), or you can merge the target branch into your branch.

Most developers on GitHub will choose to do the latter, for the same reasons we just went over in the previous section. What matters is the history and the final merge, so rebasing isn’t getting you much other than a slightly cleaner history and in return is far more difficult and error prone.

If you want to merge in the target branch to make your Pull Request mergeable, you would add the original repository as a new remote, fetch from it, merge the main branch of that repository into your topic branch, fix any issues and finally push it back up to the same branch you opened the Pull Request on.

For example, let’s say that in the ``tonychacon'' example we were using before, the original author made a change that would create a conflict in the Pull Request. Let’s go through those steps.

$ git remote add upstream https://github.com/schacon/blink 

$ git fetch upstream 
remote: Counting objects: 3, done.
remote: Compressing objects: 100% (3/3), done.
Unpacking objects: 100% (3/3), done.
remote: Total 3 (delta 0), reused 0 (delta 0)
From https://github.com/schacon/blink
 * [new branch]      master     -> upstream/master

$ git merge upstream/master 
Auto-merging blink.ino
CONFLICT (content): Merge conflict in blink.ino
Automatic merge failed; fix conflicts and then commit the result.

$ vim blink.ino 
$ git add blink.ino
$ git commit
[slow-blink 3c8d735] Merge remote-tracking branch 'upstream/master' \
    into slower-blink

$ git push origin slow-blink 
Counting objects: 6, done.
Delta compression using up to 8 threads.
Compressing objects: 100% (6/6), done.
Writing objects: 100% (6/6), 682 bytes | 0 bytes/s, done.
Total 6 (delta 2), reused 0 (delta 0)
To https://github.com/tonychacon/blink
   ef4725c..3c8d735  slower-blink -> slow-blink

• 1 Add the original repository as a remote named ``upstream''
• 2 Fetch the newest work from that remote
• 3 Merge the main branch of that repository into your topic branch
• 4 Fix the conflict that occurred
• 5 Push back up to the same topic branch

Once you do that, the Pull Request will be automatically updated and re-checked to see if it merges cleanly.

One of the great things about Git is that you can do that continuously. If you have a very long-running project, you can easily merge from the target branch over and over again and only have to deal with conflicts that have arisen since the last time that you merged, making the process very manageable.

If you absolutely wish to rebase the branch to clean it up, you can certainly do so, but it is highly encouraged to not force push over the branch that the Pull Request is already opened on. If other people have pulled it down and done more work on it, you run into all of the issues outlined in The Perils of Rebasing. Instead, push the rebased branch to a new branch on GitHub and open a brand new Pull Request referencing the old one, then close the original.

References

Your next question may be ``How do I reference the old Pull Request?''. It turns out there are many, many ways to reference other things almost anywhere you can write in GitHub.

Let’s start with how to cross-reference another Pull Request or an Issue. All Pull Requests and Issues are assigned numbers and they are unique within the project. For example, you can’t have Pull Request 3 and Issue #3. If you want to reference any Pull Request or Issue from any other one, you can simply put <num> in any comment or description. You can also be more specific if the Issue or Pull request lives somewhere else; write username#<num> if you’re referring to an Issue or Pull Request in a fork of the repository you’re in, or username/repo#<num> to reference something in another repository.

Let’s look at an example. Say we rebased the branch in the previous example, created a new pull request for it, and now we want to reference the old pull request from the new one. We also want to reference an issue in the fork of the repository and an issue in a completely different project. We can fill out the description just like Cross references in a Pull Request..

When we submit this pull request, we’ll see all of that rendered like Cross references rendered in a Pull Request..

Notice that the full GitHub URL we put in there was shortened to just the information needed.

Now if Tony goes back and closes out the original Pull Request, we can see that by mentioning it in the new one, GitHub has automatically created a trackback event in the Pull Request timeline. This means that anyone who visits this Pull Request and sees that it is closed can easily link back to the one that superseded it. The link will look something like Link back to the new Pull Request in the closed Pull Request timeline..

In addition to issue numbers, you can also reference a specific commit by SHA-1. You have to specify a full 40 character SHA-1, but if GitHub sees that in a comment, it will link directly to the commit. Again, you can reference commits in forks or other repositories in the same way you did with issues.

Task Lists

The first really useful GitHub specific Markdown feature, especially for use in Pull Requests, is the Task List. A task list is a list of checkboxes of things you want to get done. Putting them into an Issue or Pull Request normally indicates things that you want to get done before you consider the item complete.

You can create a task list like this:

- [X] Write the code
- [ ] Write all the tests
- [ ] Document the code

If we include this in the description of our Pull Request or Issue, we’ll see it rendered like Task lists rendered in a Markdown comment.

This is often used in Pull Requests to indicate what all you would like to get done on the branch before the Pull Request will be ready to merge. The really cool part is that you can simply click the checkboxes to update the comment — you don’t have to edit the Markdown directly to check tasks off.

What’s more, GitHub will look for task lists in your Issues and Pull Requests and show them as metadata on the pages that list them out. For example, if you have a Pull Request with tasks and you look at the overview page of all Pull Requests, you can see how far done it is. This helps people break down Pull Requests into subtasks and helps other people track the progress of the branch. You can see an example of this in Task list summary in the Pull Request list..

These are incredibly useful when you open a Pull Request early and use it to track your progress through the implementation of the feature.

Code Snippets

You can also add code snippets to comments. This is especially useful if you want to present something that you could try to do before actually implementing it as a commit on your branch. This is also often used to add example code of what is not working or what this Pull Request could implement.

To add a snippet of code you have to ``fence'' it in backticks.

```java
for(int i=0 ; i < 5 ; i++)
{
   System.out.println("i is : " + i);
}
```

If you add a language name like we did there with 'java', GitHub will also try to syntax highlight the snippet. In the case of the above example, it would end up rendering like Rendered fenced code example..

Quoting

If you’re responding to a small part of a long comment, you can selectively quote out of the other comment by preceding the lines with the > character. In fact, this is so common and so useful that there is a keyboard shortcut for it. If you highlight text in a comment that you want to directly reply to and hit the r key, it will quote that text in the comment box for you.

The quotes look something like this:

> Whether 'tis Nobler in the mind to suffer
> The Slings and Arrows of outrageous Fortune,

How big are these slings and in particular, these arrows?

Once rendered, the comment will look like Rendered quoting example..

Emoji

Finally, you can also use emoji in your comments. This is actually used quite extensively in comments you see on many GitHub Issues and Pull Requests. There is even an emoji helper in GitHub. If you are typing a comment and you start with a : character, an autocompleter will help you find what you’re looking for.

Emojis take the form of :<name>: anywhere in the comment. For instance, you could write something like this:

I :eyes: that :bug: and I :cold_sweat:.

:trophy: for :microscope: it.

:+1: and :sparkles: on this :ship:, it's :fire::poop:!

:clap::tada::panda_face:

When rendered, it would look something like Heavy emoji commenting..

Not that this is incredibly useful, but it does add an element of fun and emotion to a medium that is otherwise hard to convey emotion in.

Images

This isn’t technically GitHub Flavored Markdown, but it is incredibly useful. In addition to adding Markdown image links to comments, which can be difficult to find and embed URLs for, GitHub allows you to drag and drop images into text areas to embed them.

If you look at Drag and drop images to upload them and auto-embed them., you can see a small ``Parsed as Markdown'' hint above the text area. Clicking on that will give you a full cheat sheet of everything you can do with Markdown on GitHub.

Email Notifications

Someone comes along and makes a change to your code and sends you a Pull Request. You should get an email notifying you about the new Pull Request and it should look something like Email notification of a new Pull Request..

There are a few things to notice about this email. It will give you a small diffstat — a list of files that have changed in the Pull Request and by how much. It gives you a link to the Pull Request on GitHub. It also gives you a few URLs that you can use from the command line.

If you notice the line that says git pull <url> patch-1, this is a simple way to merge in a remote branch without having to add a remote. We went over this quickly in Checking Out Remote Branches. If you wish, you can create and switch to a topic branch and then run this command to merge in the Pull Request changes.

The other interesting URLs are the .diff and .patch URLs, which as you may guess, provide unified diff and patch versions of the Pull Request. You could technically merge in the Pull Request work with something like this:

$ curl https://github.com/tonychacon/fade/pull/1.patch | git am

Collaborating on the Pull Request

As we covered in The GitHub Flow, you can now have a conversation with the person who opened the Pull Request. You can comment on specific lines of code, comment on whole commits or comment on the entire Pull Request itself, using GitHub Flavored Markdown everywhere.

Every time someone else comments on the Pull Request you will continue to get email notifications so you know there is activity happening. They will each have a link to the Pull Request where the activity is happening and you can also directly respond to the email to comment on the Pull Request thread.

Once the code is in a place you like and want to merge it in, you can either pull the code down and merge it locally, either with the git pull <url> <branch> syntax we saw earlier, or by adding the fork as a remote and fetching and merging.

If the merge is trivial, you can also just hit the Merge'' button on the GitHub site. This will do a non-fast-forward'' merge, creating a merge commit even if a fast-forward merge was possible. This means that no matter what, every time you hit the merge button, a merge commit is created. As you can see in Merge button and instructions for merging a Pull Request manually., GitHub gives you all of this information if you click the hint link.

If you decide you don’t want to merge it, you can also just close the Pull Request and the person who opened it will be notified.

Pull Request Refs

If you’re dealing with a lot of Pull Requests and don’t want to add a bunch of remotes or do one time pulls every time, there is a neat trick that GitHub allows you to do. This is a bit of an advanced trick and we’ll go over the details of this a bit more in The Refspec, but it can be pretty useful.

GitHub actually advertises the Pull Request branches for a repository as sort of pseudo-branches on the server. By default you don’t get them when you clone, but they are there in an obscured way and you can access them pretty easily.

To demonstrate this, we’re going to use a low-level command (often referred to as a `plumbing'' command, which we’ll read about more in Plumbing and Porcelain) called `ls-remote. This command is generally not used in day-to-day Git operations but it’s useful to show us what references are present on the server.

If we run this command against the ``blink'' repository we were using earlier, we will get a list of all the branches and tags and other references in the repository.

$ git ls-remote https://github.com/schacon/blink
10d539600d86723087810ec636870a504f4fee4d	HEAD
10d539600d86723087810ec636870a504f4fee4d	refs/heads/master
6a83107c62950be9453aac297bb0193fd743cd6e	refs/pull/1/head
afe83c2d1a70674c9505cc1d8b7d380d5e076ed3	refs/pull/1/merge
3c8d735ee16296c242be7a9742ebfbc2665adec1	refs/pull/2/head
15c9f4f80973a2758462ab2066b6ad9fe8dcf03d	refs/pull/2/merge
a5a7751a33b7e86c5e9bb07b26001bb17d775d1a	refs/pull/4/head
31a45fc257e8433c8d8804e3e848cf61c9d3166c	refs/pull/4/merge

Of course, if you’re in your repository and you run git ls-remote origin or whatever remote you want to check, it will show you something similar to this.

If the repository is on GitHub and you have any Pull Requests that have been opened, you’ll get these references that are prefixed with refs/pull/. These are basically branches, but since they’re not under refs/heads/ you don’t get them normally when you clone or fetch from the server — the process of fetching ignores them normally.

There are two references per Pull Request - the one that ends in /head points to exactly the same commit as the last commit in the Pull Request branch. So if someone opens a Pull Request in our repository and their branch is named bug-fix and it points to commit a5a775, then in our repository we will not have a bug-fix branch (since that’s in their fork), but we will have pull/<pr#>/head that points to a5a775. This means that we can pretty easily pull down every Pull Request branch in one go without having to add a bunch of remotes.

Now, you could do something like fetching the reference directly.

$ git fetch origin refs/pull/958/head
From https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2
 * branch            refs/pull/958/head -> FETCH_HEAD

This tells Git, `Connect to the `origin remote, and download the ref named refs/pull/958/head.'' Git happily obeys, and downloads everything you need to construct that ref, and puts a pointer to the commit you want under .git/FETCH_HEAD. You can follow that up with git merge FETCH_HEAD into a branch you want to test it in, but that merge commit message looks a bit weird. Also, if you’re reviewing a lot of pull requests, this gets tedious.

There’s also a way to fetch all of the pull requests, and keep them up to date whenever you connect to the remote. Open up .git/config in your favorite editor, and look for the origin remote. It should look a bit like this:

[remote "origin"]
    url = https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2
    fetch = +refs/heads/*:refs/remotes/origin/*

That line that begins with fetch = is a `refspec.'' It’s a way of mapping names on the remote with names in your local `.git directory. This particular one tells Git, "the things on the remote that are under refs/heads should go in my local repository under refs/remotes/origin." You can modify this section to add another refspec:

[remote "origin"]
    url = https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2.git
    fetch = +refs/heads/*:refs/remotes/origin/*
    fetch = +refs/pull/*/head:refs/remotes/origin/pr/*

That last line tells Git, `All the refs that look like `refs/pull/123/head should be stored locally like refs/remotes/origin/pr/123.'' Now, if you save that file, and do a git fetch:

$ git fetch
# …
 * [new ref]         refs/pull/1/head -> origin/pr/1
 * [new ref]         refs/pull/2/head -> origin/pr/2
 * [new ref]         refs/pull/4/head -> origin/pr/4
# …

Now all of the remote pull requests are represented locally with refs that act much like tracking branches; they’re read-only, and they update when you do a fetch. This makes it super easy to try the code from a pull request locally:

$ git checkout pr/2
Checking out files: 100% (3769/3769), done.
Branch pr/2 set up to track remote branch pr/2 from origin.
Switched to a new branch 'pr/2'

The eagle-eyed among you would note the head on the end of the remote portion of the refspec. There’s also a refs/pull/#/merge ref on the GitHub side, which represents the commit that would result if you push the ``merge'' button on the site. This can allow you to test the merge before even hitting the button.

Pull Requests on Pull Requests

Not only can you open Pull Requests that target the main or master branch, you can actually open a Pull Request targeting any branch in the network. In fact, you can even target another Pull Request.

If you see a Pull Request that is moving in the right direction and you have an idea for a change that depends on it or you’re not sure is a good idea, or you just don’t have push access to the target branch, you can open a Pull Request directly to it.

When you go to open a Pull Request, there is a box at the top of the page that specifies which branch you’re requesting to pull to and which you’re requesting to pull from. If you hit the ``Edit'' button at the right of that box you can change not only the branches but also which fork.

Here you can fairly easily specify to merge your new branch into another Pull Request or another fork of the project.

The Notifications Page

When we mention notifications'' here with respect to GitHub, we mean a specific way that GitHub tries to get in touch with you when events happen and there are a few different ways you can configure them. If you go to the Notification center'' tab from the settings page, you can see some of the options you have.

The two choices are to get notifications over Email'' and over Web'' and you can choose either, neither or both for when you actively participate in things and for activity on repositories you are watching.

Web Notifications

Web notifications only exist on GitHub and you can only check them on GitHub. If you have this option selected in your preferences and a notification is triggered for you, you will see a small blue dot over your notifications icon at the top of your screen as seen in Notification center..

If you click on that, you will see a list of all the items you have been notified about, grouped by project. You can filter to the notifications of a specific project by clicking on its name in the left hand sidebar. You can also acknowledge the notification by clicking the checkmark icon next to any notification, or acknowledge all of the notifications in a project by clicking the checkmark at the top of the group. There is also a mute button next to each checkmark that you can click to not receive any further notifications on that item.

All of these tools are very useful for handling large numbers of notifications. Many GitHub power users will simply turn off email notifications entirely and manage all of their notifications through this screen.

To: tonychacon/fade <fade@noreply.github.com>
Message-ID: <tonychacon/fade/pull/1@github.com>
Subject: [fade] Wait longer to see the dimming effect better (#1)
X-GitHub-Recipient: tonychacon
List-ID: tonychacon/fade <fade.tonychacon.github.com>
List-Archive: https://github.com/tonychacon/fade
List-Post: <mailto:reply+i-4XXX@reply.github.com>
List-Unsubscribe: <mailto:unsub+i-XXX@reply.github.com>,...
X-GitHub-Recipient-Address: tchacon@example.com

Changing the Default Branch

If you are using a branch other than master'' as your default branch that you want people to open Pull Requests on or see by default, you can change that in your repository’s settings page under the Options'' tab.

Simply change the default branch in the dropdown and that will be the default for all major operations from then on, including which branch is checked out by default when someone clones the repository.

Transferring a Project

If you would like to transfer a project to another user or an organization in GitHub, there is a Transfer ownership'' option at the bottom of the same Options'' tab of your repository settings page that allows you to do this.

This is helpful if you are abandoning a project and someone wants to take it over, or if your project is getting bigger and want to move it into an organization.

Not only does this move the repository along with all its watchers and stars to another place, it also sets up a redirect from your URL to the new place. It will also redirect clones and fetches from Git, not just web requests.

Services

First we’ll take a look at Services. Both the Hooks and Services integrations can be found in the Settings section of your repository, where we previously looked at adding Collaborators and changing the default branch of your project. Under the ``Webhooks and Services'' tab you will see something like Services and Hooks configuration section..

There are dozens of services you can choose from, most of them integrations into other commercial and open source systems. Most of them are for Continuous Integration services, bug and issue trackers, chat room systems and documentation systems. We’ll walk through setting up a very simple one, the Email hook. If you choose email'' from the Add Service'' dropdown, you’ll get a configuration screen like Email service configuration..

In this case, if we hit the ``Add service'' button, the email address we specified will get an email every time someone pushes to the repository. Services can listen for lots of different types of events, but most only listen for push events and then do something with that data.

If there is a system you are using that you would like to integrate with GitHub, you should check here to see if there is an existing service integration available. For example, if you’re using Jenkins to run tests on your codebase, you can enable the Jenkins builtin service integration to kick off a test run every time someone pushes to your repository.

Hooks

If you need something more specific or you want to integrate with a service or site that is not included in this list, you can instead use the more generic hooks system. GitHub repository hooks are pretty simple. You specify a URL and GitHub will post an HTTP payload to that URL on any event you want.

Generally the way this works is you can setup a small web service to listen for a GitHub hook payload and then do something with the data when it is received.

To enable a hook, you click the ``Add webhook'' button in Services and Hooks configuration section.. This will bring you to a page that looks like Web hook configuration..

The configuration for a web hook is pretty simple. In most cases you simply enter a URL and a secret key and hit `Add webhook''. There are a few options for which events you want GitHub to send you a payload for — the default is to only get a payload for the `push event, when someone pushes new code to any branch of your repository.

Let’s see a small example of a web service you may set up to handle a web hook. We’ll use the Ruby web framework Sinatra since it’s fairly concise and you should be able to easily see what we’re doing.

Let’s say we want to get an email if a specific person pushes to a specific branch of our project modifying a specific file. We could fairly easily do that with code like this:

require 'sinatra'
require 'json'
require 'mail'

post '/payload' do
  push = JSON.parse(request.body.read) # parse the JSON

  # gather the data we're looking for
  pusher = push["pusher"]["name"]
  branch = push["ref"]

  # get a list of all the files touched
  files = push["commits"].map do |commit|
    commit['added'] + commit['modified'] + commit['removed']
  end
  files = files.flatten.uniq

  # check for our criteria
  if pusher == 'schacon' &&
     branch == 'ref/heads/special-branch' &&
     files.include?('special-file.txt')

    Mail.deliver do
      from     'tchacon@example.com'
      to       'tchacon@example.com'
      subject  'Scott Changed the File'
      body     "ALARM"
    end
  end
end

Here we’re taking the JSON payload that GitHub delivers us and looking up who pushed it, what branch they pushed to and what files were touched in all the commits that were pushed. Then we check that against our criteria and send an email if it matches.

In order to develop and test something like this, you have a nice developer console in the same screen where you set the hook up. You can see the last few deliveries that GitHub has tried to make for that webhook. For each hook you can dig down into when it was delivered, if it was successful and the body and headers for both the request and the response. This makes it incredibly easy to test and debug your hooks.

The other great feature of this is that you can redeliver any of the payloads to test your service easily.

For more information on how to write webhooks and all the different event types you can listen for, go to the GitHub Developer documentation at https://developer.github.com/webhooks/